International Journal of Medical Sciences and Pharma Research

Anemia in Pregnancy: Exploring Non-Iron Deficiency Causes

Emmanuel Ifeanyi Obeagu — 2025-03-15

Anemia in pregnancy is a global health concern, with significant implications for maternal and fetal outcomes. While iron deficiency anemia (IDA) remains the most prevalent form, non-iron deficiency causes of anemia are increasingly recognized and require attention. These include vitamin deficiencies (folate and vitamin B12), hemoglobinopathies such as sickle cell disease and thalassemias, anemia of chronic disease, infectious diseases, and rare bone marrow disorders. These conditions differ in their etiology and management, underscoring the need for tailored diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. The consequences of non-iron deficiency anemia during pregnancy are profound, ranging from maternal fatigue and increased infection susceptibility to adverse pregnancy outcomes such as preterm birth, low birth weight, and developmental impairments in offspring. Misdiagnosis or delayed recognition of these forms of anemia often leads to suboptimal management and worsened health outcomes. A comprehensive understanding of the underlying causes is essential for improving maternal care and mitigating associated risks.

Keywords: anemia, pregnancy, non-iron deficiency, hemoglobinopathies, chronic disease anemia

Maternal Anemia in the Context of Infectious Diseases during Pregnancy: A Review

Emmanuel Ifeanyi Obeagu — 2025-03-15

Maternal anemia is a significant health concern during pregnancy, with various causes contributing to its onset. In particular, infectious diseases such as malaria and HIV can exacerbate anemia, leading to increased risks for both the mother and the fetus. This review explores the complex relationship between maternal anemia and infectious diseases during pregnancy, focusing on the pathophysiology, clinical implications, diagnostic approaches, and management strategies for anemia associated with malaria and HIV. The combined effect of anemia and infections can lead to severe complications such as preterm birth, low birth weight, and maternal morbidity, making early detection and targeted interventions essential for optimal health outcomes. Infectious diseases like malaria and HIV contribute to anemia through direct and indirect mechanisms. Malaria, for instance, leads to the destruction of red blood cells, while HIV-related anemia is often linked to bone marrow suppression and chronic inflammation. These infections can worsen the body’s nutritional status, further contributing to anemia through deficiencies in essential vitamins and minerals, including iron, folate, and vitamin B12. Both conditions require specific management strategies to address the underlying infection and treat anemia effectively. In areas with high rates of malaria and HIV, a comprehensive approach to maternal care is vital to mitigate the risks of complications.

Keywords: Maternal anemia, infectious diseases, pregnancy, malaria, HIV

The Role of Copper Deficiency in Anemia during Pregnancy

Emmanuel Ifeanyi Obeagu — 2025-03-15

Copper deficiency is an emerging but under-recognized cause of anemia during pregnancy, a condition that can lead to adverse outcomes for both the mother and fetus. While iron deficiency anemia has long been the primary focus, copper plays an essential role in hematopoiesis, iron metabolism, and red blood cell maturation, making its deficiency a significant factor in pregnancy-related anemia. This review explores the causes and mechanisms of copper deficiency in pregnancy, emphasizing how it impairs iron utilization and disrupts key cellular processes, contributing to anemia. The causes of copper deficiency in pregnancy are multifactorial, including inadequate dietary intake, malabsorption, and increased physiological demand. Pregnant women are particularly vulnerable due to the heightened copper requirements for fetal development, placental growth, and enhanced red blood cell production. Additionally, interactions between copper and other micronutrients, such as zinc, can exacerbate deficiency, further compromising maternal health.

Keywords: Copper Deficiency, Anemia, Pregnancy, Hematopoiesis, Micronutrient Deficiency

Anemia in Pregnancy: The Role of Iron Transport and Regulation

Emmanuel Ifeanyi Obeagu — 2025-03-15

Anemia in pregnancy is a common and significant condition that can adversely affect both maternal and fetal health. Among the various types of anemia, iron deficiency anemia (IDA) is the most prevalent and is primarily caused by insufficient iron intake, impaired absorption, or increased iron demand during pregnancy. Iron plays a crucial role in hemoglobin production, and its transport and regulation are key factors in maintaining adequate iron levels for oxygen delivery. This review explores the mechanisms of iron transport and regulation in pregnancy and their implications for anemia. Understanding these biological processes is essential for improving the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of iron deficiency anemia during pregnancy. The regulation of iron homeostasis involves a complex network of proteins and hormones that control iron absorption, transport, and storage. Hepcidin, a hormone produced by the liver, is the primary regulator of iron metabolism, modulating the absorption of iron from the gastrointestinal tract and its release from storage sites. During pregnancy, the body adapts to meet the increased iron demand by enhancing iron absorption and mobilizing iron stores. However, disruptions in iron regulation, such as increased hepcidin levels due to inflammation or inadequate dietary intake, can lead to functional iron deficiency, even in the presence of normal iron stores. The review discusses these regulatory mechanisms and their impact on iron deficiency anemia in pregnancy.

Keywords: anemia, pregnancy, iron transport, iron regulation, maternal health

The Impact of Anemia on the Immune System during Pregnancy: A Review

Emmanuel Ifeanyi Obeagu — 2025-03-15

Anemia is a prevalent condition during pregnancy, often leading to significant health consequences for both the mother and fetus. One of the major concerns associated with anemia in pregnant women is its impact on the immune system. Iron deficiency, the most common cause of anemia, can impair immune cell function, reduce the body’s ability to respond to infections, and alter inflammatory responses. This review explores the effects of maternal anemia on immune function during pregnancy, highlighting the disruptions to innate and adaptive immunity and the mechanisms involved, such as altered cytokine production and immune cell dysregulation. The immune system undergoes considerable changes during pregnancy to balance maternal and fetal protection, and anemia can disrupt this delicate equilibrium. Anemia’s impact on immune cells, particularly neutrophils, macrophages, and T lymphocytes, compromises the body’s defense against infections. Moreover, anemia-associated inflammation can promote a pro-inflammatory state, contributing to pregnancy complications like preeclampsia, gestational diabetes, and preterm labor. These immune dysregulations may also affect fetal development, increasing the risk of neonatal infections or immune-related disorders.

Keywords: Anemia, Immune System, Pregnancy, Inflammation, Immunity

The Relationship between Exercise and Hemoglobin Levels in Pregnant Women: A Review

Emmanuel Ifeanyi Obeagu — 2025-03-15

Anemia during pregnancy is a prevalent condition that can lead to significant maternal and fetal health complications, including fatigue, preterm birth, and low birth weight. Hemoglobin levels, which are critical for oxygen transport, naturally fluctuate during pregnancy due to increased blood volume and iron demands. While iron supplementation is the primary treatment for anemia, emerging evidence suggests that exercise may have a beneficial role in managing hemoglobin levels during pregnancy. This review aims to explore the relationship between exercise and hemoglobin levels in pregnant women, focusing on the physiological mechanisms, types of exercise, and its impact on maternal health. Moderate physical activity, particularly aerobic exercises such as walking and swimming, has been shown to improve circulation, enhance iron metabolism, and stimulate erythropoiesis, thereby supporting healthy hemoglobin levels. Exercise can promote better oxygen delivery to maternal and fetal tissues, reducing the risk of anemia and its associated complications. Additionally, resistance training may have benefits for muscle strength and circulation, although its direct effects on hemoglobin levels require further investigation. Importantly, exercise intensity and duration must be managed to avoid potential risks, such as dehydration or exacerbation of anemia.

Keywords: Exercise, Hemoglobin, Pregnancy, Anemia, Maternal Health

Analyzing the Role of Hematopoietic Growth Factors in Pregnancy-Related Anemia: A Narrative Review

Emmanuel Ifeanyi Obeagu — 2025-03-15

Pregnancy-related anemia is a common and significant health concern that can impact maternal and fetal outcomes. Hematopoietic growth factors, including erythropoietin (EPO), granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF), and thrombopoietin (TPO), are essential regulators of hematopoiesis, influencing red blood cell, white blood cell, and platelet production. This review explores the role of these growth factors in pregnancy-related anemia, examining how they regulate erythropoiesis and immune responses during pregnancy. The article also addresses the therapeutic potential of these factors in managing anemia in pregnant women, highlighting their possible use in cases where conventional treatments, such as iron supplementation, may be insufficient. Erythropoietin, primarily produced by the kidneys, is the main growth factor involved in stimulating red blood cell production. During pregnancy, increased EPO production supports the expanding blood volume and the oxygen demands of the fetus. However, iron deficiency and other nutritional deficiencies can limit the effectiveness of EPO in addressing anemia. Additionally, G-CSF, a growth factor involved in neutrophil production, may have a supporting role in enhancing immune function and reducing infection risks in pregnant women with anemia. Thrombopoietin, involved in platelet production, may also be significant in managing anemia with platelet dysfunction in conditions like preeclampsia.

Keywords: Hematopoietic growth factors, pregnancy-related anemia, erythropoiesis, anemia management, maternal health

Design and Evaluation of Gastro-Retentive Floating Tablets of Etidronate disodium

Manmeet Kumar — 2025-03-15

Osteoporosis raises the chance of breaking a bone strength. It is the most frequent cause of fractures in the elderly. The hip, forearm, and back bones are among the bones that break most frequently. Usually, there are no symptoms until a broken bone happens. In order to target site-specific drug release in the upper GIT for a local or systemic effect, GRDDs are a method of extending the gastric residence time. For a very long time, gastro retentive dosage forms (GRDFs) have been used to enhance treatment with a number of significant medications. Paget's disease is a particular kind of bone disease that is treated with etidronate disodium.Bones are weakened and deformed by this disease. To improve its oral bioavailability, etidronate disodium, the most widely used biphosphonate for osteoporosis treatment, was made into gastro retentive dosage form (GRDF) tablets. Carbopol 934P, HPMC 4KM, and Na-CMC at different ratios were used to characterize the effects of GRDF tablets of Etidronate disodium (200 mg) on swelling, floating, and physical integrity. The thickness, friability, hardness, drug content, and in-vitro drug release of the Risedronate GRDF tablets produced in this study were all found to have a prolonged dissolution profile. Oral drug delivery is still the most popular method despite significant advancements in the field because it is simple to administer, therapy is inexpensive, and patient compliance is high.

Keywords: Gastro retention, Etidronate disodium, Carbopol 934P, HPMC 4KM, Na-CMC, GRDF, GRFT.